Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park Research Articles

Tetrigidae (Orthoptera) of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park in Nepal

Summary Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP) is a protected land spanning an area of 159 km2 in the heart of central Nepal. This area has never been systematically explored in search of the family Tetrigidae (Orthoptera). In this paper, we report 11 species from SNNP, of which five are new to science: Aryalidonta rochaki n. sp., Skejotettix mahendrai n. sp., Skejotettix mahajodi n. sp., Lamellitettigodes jhalakmani n. sp., and Hebarditettix sanduki n. sp. Due to new combinations, the genus Aryalidonta Subedi & Kasalo, 2023 has three additional species, Aryalidonta ridleyi (Günther, 1938) n. comb., A. dohertyi (Hancock, 1915) n. comb. and A. pallida (Hancock, 1915) n. comb., all of which were previously assigned to Eucriotettix Hebard, 1930. Brief notes on compositions and diagnoses of genera Lamellitettigodes Günther, 1939 and Skejotettix Subedi, 2022 are provided, inviting further research. The generic assignment of Pseudoparatettix incertus Ingrisch, 2001a called into question. An identification key to all the tetrigids of SNNP is provided.

Gastro-Intestinal Parasites in Monkeys of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park and Temple Areas of Kathmandu Valley

The study intended to assess the prevalence of gastro-intestinal parasites in free-ranging macaques of Bajarayogini temple, Bajrabarahi temple and areas of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP). A total of 70 fresh fecal samples of Macaca sps, were collected from October 2022 to May 2023 and processed by direct wet mount method and concentration method. The result disclosed the distribution of total 5 species of protozoan parasites and 8 species of helminth parasites, indicating 100% prevalence rate where Entamoeba coli (67.14%) showed the highest prevalence followed by Trichostrongylus spp. (1.43%) with the lowest prevalence. It was observed that the helminth parasite, Nematodirus spp. was identified for the first time from the samples of monkeys in Nepal. Human-primate transmission of infectious disease is one of the most important emerging threats that’s why, emphasizing public awareness for control of parasitic infection to reduce the zoonotic transmission of the pathogenic parasites was suggested.

Some Ranunculaceae of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park Central Nepal

Four species of the family Ranunculaceae were collected from Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP). These were Aconitum ferox Wall ex Ser, Clematis smilacifolia Wall, Ranunculus scleratus L. and Thallictrum foliolosum DC. Among these Aconitum ferox is threatened plant and are widely collected for medicinal purpose. The plant is used for curing many diseases.
 Nepal is rich in biodiversity and it harbors 2% of the world’s flowering plants and it boasts around 6200 species. Floral diversity is quite high in SNNP due to its location, altitudinal and climatic variations. However its detailed study is not undertaken till now. Human survival primarily depends upon the plant resources. Plants and plant product form an integral part of our life and it is extremely difficult to imagine the survival of human without it. The area shows climatic variation from subtropical to lower temperate. Indigenous knowledge and traditional practice about the use of plants of SNNP has not been documented.

Checklist of wild mammals of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Checklist of wild mammals of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Evaluation of Disturbance Zonation of Bagmati River System using Benthic Macroinvertebrates in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

The existence of Nepal's holy river, Bagmati, which flows through the core of Kathmandu Valley has been menaced by many anthropogenic threats. It is necessary to identify how vulnerable it has been. This research focuses on the evaluation of disturbance zonation to analyze the Bagmati River System’s spatial biological health. Benthic macroinvertebrates (BMIs) were used as biological indicators and were sampled from upstream to downstream using a multi-habitat sampling approach during the post-monsoon period in 2021. The Ganga River System Biotic Score/Average Score per Taxa (GRSBIOS/ASPT) was used to assess river water quality. From the sampling of 21 sites, a total of 5839 individual BMIs from 51 Families and 11 Orders were recorded. Upstream accounted for more than 30% of all the families, making upstream rich in taxonomic preferences, which steadily decreased from midstream to downstream. Facultative taxa were widely distributed in both upstream and midstream, but sensitive taxa were limited to upstream only. There are no signs that facultative and sensitive taxa existed downstream and were fully dominated by pollution-tolerant species. According to classification, the upstream river within Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park of the Bagmati River System was clean and was categorized as Class I, whereas rivers from the boundaries of the protected area to downstream were categorized as Class IV-V with few sites as Class II and Class III, indicating that this stretch of the river was extremely polluted. Water resource managers should utilize the study's findings to assess and restore the water's quality using biological indicators.

Attitude of People Towards Relief Fund as Human-Wildlife Conflict Management Strategy: A Case Study of Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Attitude of People Towards Relief Fund as Human-Wildlife Conflict Management Strategy: A Case Study of Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

A faunistic study on the hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Central Nepal

ABSTRACT Nepal is a mountainous country in the Central Himalayas, well known for its high biodiversity and unique fauna. The vivid habitat of Nepal seems to possess high diversity of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae), however, little investigation has been done on these flies in this country. The present study aims to explore the hoverfly fauna based on present field sampling from the Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park. The field collection includes 454 hoverfly specimens belonging to 34 species from the park with three new country records: Graptomyza nigripes, Lycastris albipes and Volucella trifasciata. The photographs of dorsal and lateral habitus of all 34 collected species are presented. The present collection of hoverfly specimens in the park shows equal number of species in both subfamilies; Eristalinae and Syrphinae while none of the specimen collected from subfamilies Pipizinae and Microdontinae.

Bird diversity along an elevational gradient in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP) plays an important role in global biodiversity conservation, but research based on avian diversity along elevation gradients has not been studied yet. Therefore, this study aims to explore avian diversity, its pattern, and environmental variables affecting bird species richness along elevation gradients. The point count method was carried out in the monsoon season (June and July) in 2019. Data for environmental variables including elevation, distance to settlement, distance to nearest water sources, temperature, and precipitation were assessed with respect to the feeding guild. A total of 130 species of bird belonging to 40 families and 12 orders were recorded including the Steppe eagle (endangered species) and Spiny Babbler (only endemic bird of Nepal), which indicate that SNNP supports avian diversity. Diversity indices showed diverse bird community assemblage such as the Shannon-Weiner diversity index (H'=2.65), Simpson diversity index (0.92), and evenness index E=0.94). Our study revealed insectivores were dominating among others and the order Passeriformes had the high species richness. Our observation revealed that the bird species richness was significantly greater at lower elevations than at mid and high elevations, showing a clear monotonic decline in species richness and diversity with increasing elevation. In the case of feeding guild (insectivores, omnivores, frugivores, and carnivores), most of the bird species showed a significant relationship with environmental variables (elevation, distance to settlement, distance to nearest water sources, temperature, and precipitation). It was concluded that not only environmental factors are responsible for affecting avian diversity but elevational gradients consisting of heterogeneous habitats can also play an important role in shaping avian diversity patterns.

Use of Spatial Technology for Land Cover Change Assessment in Protected Area Management

Land cover assessment and monitoring of land cover dynamics are important to understand social and ecological processes in protected areas and it is helpful in monitoring, modeling and detection of environmental changes. Land cover is the characteristics of the physical material on the ground surface. Change in land cover is among the most important human alteration affecting the surface of earth that directly impacts on biological diversity. Such changes affect and increase the vulnerability of population, environment and ecosystem to global phenomena of climate change. This study has assessed the changes in land cover in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP) along with its Buffer Zone during twenty-seven years. The main objective of this study is to identify the changed scenario on land cover condition of the study area based on available topographic maps (1994), Google Earth images (2021) and Key Informant Interview (KII). The study has adopted Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) approach supported by secondary data and focus group discussion for classification and mapping of land cover. Among the different land cover classes, forest land, sandy area, water bodies and others land particularly built up area have been increased whereas, the bush/shrub land, cultivated land and grass land have been found decreased in the park area. On the other hand, the cultivated land, grass land and water bodies have been found decreased, while the bush/ shrub land, forest land, sandy area and others land particularly built up areas have been found significantly increased during 1994 to 2021 in the BZ area. It will provide a baseline for planners and policy makers to make proper plans to sustainably manage the protected area’s land cover.

Richness and Impact of Invasive Alien Species Plant in Trees of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Central Nepal

The effect of invasive species on biodiversity is a major issue of world. This study was conducted at the Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park. This study assessed the invasive species status factor associated with it and their impact on seedling and sapling of trees. Modified Whittaker Nested sampling stratifies was adopted for vegetation sampling. A total of 15 plots were taken with 195 subplots between 1409 m to 2140 m. altitudinal ranges. A total of 32 tree species and nine invasive species were recorded from the studied sites. The pine forest was having significantly (W = 3, p = 0.03) more coverage of invasive species than mixed forest, the coverage of invasive species was also significantly (W = 50, p = 0.009) more with more invasive species than plot with single invasive types. Beside this coverage was also affected by canopy cover, trampling and altitude but not significantly different. The invasive species have impact on numbers of seedling, sapling and their diversity species coverage. We recommend removing these invasive species.

Impacts of forest fire on people living in suburban Kathmandu in the buffer zone of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park

The research study mainly intends to gauge the impact of forest fire in the buffer zone community of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, mainly in the area of Chapali Bhadrakali (ward number 2) adjacent to the sprawling Kathmandu metropolitan city. The study reflects the frequent occurrence of forest fire events happening in the area and its effects, both physical and psychological, on the local communities in the buffer zone. The locals have their work cut out due to the repetition of the incident every year leaving them no alternative than to ready themselves to face the challenges. Thus, the research paper includes both the threats caused by forest fires to people’s livelihoods as well as the local’s perception regarding the fire incidents. Ergo, this study analyzes the impact status of the buffer zone community of Chapali Bhadrakali with regard to seasonal forest fire events.

Bee (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) Fauna of Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

The present study was carried out in Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park to document the baseline data of bee fauna. The study was regulated at elevations of 1,500–2,732 m. The specimens were collected using the sweeping net and colored pan traps. The collection was done from March to October 2018. Total 42 species, 14 genera, 12 tribes, and five families of bees were recorded. Of these, 41 species are the first record from the park and 11 species, viz., Amegilla candida (Smith, 1879), Amegilla fallax (Smith, 1879), Amegilla insularis (Smith, 1857), Amegilla quadrifasciata (de Villers, 1789), Elaphropoda impatiens (Lieftinck, 1944), Ceratina perforatrix Smith, 1879, Colletes similis Schenck, 1853, Megachile conjuncta Smith, 1879, Nomia iridescens Smith, 1858, Xylocopa collaris Lepeletier, 1841, and Xylocopa violacea (Linnaeus, 1758) are new records for Nepal.

Depredation of Crop Caused By Monkeys nearby ShivapuriNagarjun National Park, Kathmandu, Nepal

Macaca mulatta, and Macaca assamensis are common monkeys in Nepal. The Macaca assamensis was categorized as ‘Vulnerable’ under IUCN Red List. The habitat of the monkey was disturbed because of human interference and hence the consequence is frequent damage of human’s properties. However, there was limited study regarding the crop damage caused by monkeys in Nepal. Therefore, this study was objectively conducted to assess the damages and their spatial distribution caused by Monkeys nearby Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park and also find the causes of interface between humans and Monkey. Four sites were visited and 120 house hold survey was done to collect the primary data. The GPS coordinates of the spatial distribution of damages were recorded. Secondary information about the damages was collected from 2019 to 2022. Descriptive and statistical analysis like trend analysis, principle component analysis and mapping of distribution of damages was done. The result showed that, the highest damage of the maize at Nayagaun, Thulogaun with 650 Kg while this was the lowest around 280 Kg. Similarly, the highest maize damage at Naagarjun, Gufagairi, Sarung danda was 400 Kg while the highest record of crop damage at Raniban, Ichangu Narayan was 190 Kg. The distribution map showed that there were 12 locations of maize damage over 450 kg at Nayagaun, Thulogaun. Similarly, the map of Goldhunga showed 17 places having medium damage (120-350 kg), 28 places of low damage (50-120 kg) while the 5 places of very low damage (<50 kg). The principle component analysis showed the causes of interface between humans and monkeys. The use of catapult in Nayagaun, Thulogaun, shout and charge threat in Naagarjun, Gufagairi, Sarung danda and in Raniban, Ichangu Narayan were the most influencing factors of this interface. This research will be useful for scientific community and policy maker.

Community structure of pollinating insects and its driving factors in different habitats of Shivapuri‐Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Insect pollinators are important means for a stable ecosystem. The habitat types play a crucial role in the community composition, abundance, diversity, and species richness of the pollinators. The present study in Shivapuri‐Nagarjun National Park explored the species richness and abundances of insect pollinators in four different habitats and different environmental variables in determining the community composition of the pollinators. Data were collected from 1,500 m to 2,700 m using color pan traps and hand sweeping methods. Non‐Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) and Redundancy Analysis (RDA) were conducted to show the association between insect pollinators and environmental variables. The results firmly demonstrated that species richness and abundances were higher (158) in Open trail compared to other habitats. The distribution of the pollinator species was more uniform in the Open trail followed by the Grassland. Similarly, a strong positive correlation between flower resources and pollinators' abundance (R2 = .63, P < .001) was found. In conclusion, the Open trail harbors rich insect pollinators in lower elevation. The community structure of the pollinators was strongly influenced by the presence of flowers in the trails.

Occurrence of bats in protected areas of Nepal: An update on species richness and distribution records

Bat surveys in 20 Protected Areas (PAs) of Nepal are sporadic and/or had targeted purposively a few localities, therefore, bat diversity from the PAs is yet to be explored. Bat species richness in PAs from two reviews until 2011 are inconsistent. In total, seven surveys have been undertaken in six PAs since 2011. Hence, an update and revision on chiropteran account from the PAs of Nepal is warranted. We reviewed available literatures and museum collection records, and further collated and plotted bat occurrence coordinates into the country and mapped them. In total, 44 of 53 bat species in Nepal have been recorded from 12 PAs. Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) reports highest species richness (22) followed by Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park and Buffer Zone (SNNP &amp; BZ) (15), Makalu Barun National Park and Buffer Zone (MBNP &amp; BZ) (14) and Chitwan National Park and Buffer Zone (CNP &amp; BZ) (13). In contrast, survey localities are more in CNP &amp; BZ (12), ACA and SNNP &amp; BZ (equally 11) and MBNP &amp; BZ (10). Species richness increased proportionately with higher survey efforts and including more habitat types in respective PAs. Three species: Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, Rh. pearsonii and Rh. sinicus are recorded from six out of 12 PAs. Pipistrellus javanicus (12), Hipposideros armiger (10), Cynopterus sphinx (9) and Rh. sinicus (9) are recorded from maximum number of surveyed localities in the PAs. All the PAs have limited occurrence records. Therefore, intensive surveys are recommended for understanding actual chiropteran diversity to the PAs of Nepal.

Activity pattern and habitat association of Assamese macaques Macaca assamensis McClelland, 1840 in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis McClelland, 1840 is one of the primate species with narrow distribution range and the least exploration. This study investigated the diurnal activity of Assamese macaque and association with the vegetation in Nagarjun Forest of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Behaviour sampling including Instantaneous sampling and Ad-libitum sampling (7:30 AM – 4:30 PM) along with vegetation survey (20 m × 20 m plots) were applied. The Raniban Barrack troop of Assamese macaque composed of 12 individuals was observed for a total of 225 hours to record the macaque’s diurnal activity. The troop spent 28% time in inactive, 25% in grooming, 23% in foraging, 23% in locomotion and 1% in fighting. Assamese macaque troop spent more time in Schima wallichii possessing 25.91%, 36.29% and 41.22% for foraging, locomotion and inactive respectively of the diurnal time. Altogether, 67 plant species (herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers) were documented from vegetation analysis. Schima wallichii and Ardisia macrocarpa were dominated the habitat. Paired t-test revealed significant difference in foraging (df = 24, P = 0.010) and inactive (df = 24, P = 0.003) between the morning and day observational phases. The findings of this study shed light on the food preference and microhabitat use by the protected Assamese macaque in Nepal that assists to formulate the management plans for the species.

Diversity of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) in Nagarjun, Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Abstract. Budhathoki N, Dhakal S, Dyola U. 2021. Diversity of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) in Nagarjun, Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Biodiversitas 22: 5382-5388. Hoverflies are recognized as potential pollinators of a wide range of wild plants. This study explored the abundance and diversity of hoverflies over three different seasons from October 2018 to April 2019 in two different study sites, i.e. forest and grassland at Nagarjun of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal. Each site of the study area was further divided into five sampling transect stations. Hoverflies were collected from each station by using two methods as pan trap sampling and transect sweeping sampling. Overall, a total of 373 specimens representing 13 species under nine genera of two subfamilies (Syrphinae and Eristalinae) were recorded. The abundance and diversity of hoverflies varied seasonally, the maximum number of individuals and diversity were recorded from the spring season, whereas the minimum number of individuals and diversity were found in the winter season. In addition, forest habitat consists of the highest abundance and diversity of hoverflies, whereas grassland consists of the lowest abundance and diversity. The analysis done by using generalized linear modeling (GLM) revealed climatic parameters such as temperature and humidity had a varying effect on the abundance of hoverflies. However, both these parameters had not any significant influence on the number of hoverfly species.

Variation in Soil Organic Carbon under Different Forest Types in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Understanding distribution of soil organic carbon (SOC) in soil profile is important for assessing soil fertility and SOC stock because it varies with soils of different vegetation and land use types. In this context, the objective of this research is that it was conducted to determine key variance in the SOC stock in three different soil layers, 0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm of different vegetation covers of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park of Kathmandu district, Nepal. Overall field measurement was based on standard national methods. We used the dichromate digestion method to analyse SOC concentrations. The highest SOC concentration (%) was recorded as 4.87% in 0–20 cm of oak forest and lowest 0.42% in 40–60 cm of Chir pine forest. Forest types (oak, upper mixed hardwood, lower mixed hardwood, and Chir pine) had SOC stock 149.62, 104.47, 62.5, and 50.85 t/ha, respectively, up to 60 cm depth. However, these values are significantly different (p=0.02) at 5% level of significance when comparing means between the forest types. The SOC stock was decreased with increased soil depth, though not significantly different at 5% level of significance. Further study with respect to different climate, soil, forest, and land use type is recommended.

COVID-19 lockdown frees wildlife to roam but increases poaching threats in Nepal.

To contain transmission of COVID‐19, lockdowns or strict restrictions of people's mobility outside their residences were instituted in a majority of countries worldwide, including Nepal, where the first phase of nationwide lockdown was observed from 24 March to 21 July 2020. This sudden halt in human outdoor activities brought positive and negative impacts on forests and wildlife. We undertook a study to learn the impact of the COVID‐19 lockdown on wildlife and forests in the protected areas (PAs) of Nepal. Between July and September 2020, data on illegal activities recorded by the staff of PAs and also those reported by media were collected and analyzed. Key informant interviews (KII) were done with the park officers and security personnel by virtual communication (telephone, messenger app, and video call) to collect detailed information and for corroboration. The collected data were categorized into four groups: (a) wildlife killed, (b) wildlife injured, (c) arrest incidents related to forest crime, and (d) arrest incidents related to wildlife crime. Data from the fiscal year 2019–2020 were analyzed, comparing before lockdown and after. Among 20 PAs investigated during the lockdown, the study found substantial increases in wildlife death in two PAs, Banke National Park, and Bardia National Park. Similarly, Chitwan National Park (CNP) and Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP) witnessed a rise in wildlife poaching. CNP and SNNP are located close to densely populated cities and also have human settlements in their peripheries. Wildlife was sighted freely roaming inside PAs during the lockdown, presumably because the absence of visitors and human activities during the lockdown decreased disturbance. Thus, the wildlife was enjoying the freedom of movement on the one hand, and on the other hand was threatened by poachers, many of whom were laid off from other activities and were taking advantage of the lapse in security.

Distribution of Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) in Nagarjun forest of Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is one of the world’s critically endangered species, and its distribution is little known in Nepal. This study aimed at understanding the distribution of Chinese pangolin in Nagarjun forest of Shivapuri-Nagarjun National Park, Nepal from September 2017 to May 2018. A total of 15 infrared cameras were used, these were installed randomly in the forest. Only three cameras at three different locations were able to capture photographs of Chinese pangolin. Altogether, three events, comprising 21 still photos of pangolin, their sign and other mammal species in the area were recorded. In addition, 94 pangolin burrows were noticed in the study area. The distribution of Chinese pangolin is influenced by the food, tree canopy and aspect of the area. Majority of the active burrows were found near to feeding burrows where ants and termite’s nest were found abundantly. In addition to Chinese pangolin, the study was able to capture twelve mammalian species including masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) and yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula). These two species were often seen to enter or try to enter the active burrows of pangolins. The results suggest that Nagarjun Forest serves an important role in mammal conservation with high mammalian biodiversity.